Kashmir “Problem” was described in a previous article to be more than four centuries old. Right from the time the Kashmiris ceased to be citizens of an Independent Sovereign State. However, it needs to be emphasized that the “Problem” has been to a great extent of our own making. From the earliest times Kashmir has faced infighting among the various claimants to political power. Even Kalhana in Rajtarangni laments the misfortunes that befell the inhabitants of the valley because of the wars of succession which erupted from time to time among the early Hindu rulers. Damaras, a class of feudal landlords were always busy in making and unmaking ancient Kings of Kashmir. No King could survive without the help of these powerful barons. They belonged to different districts and had their homes in the most fertile cultivated portions of the valley. The entire narrative is full of instances where a King would have a fall as soon as he lost support of some of these powerful feudal lords. It was always the first task of a King to solicit support of the most powerful Damaras and also to suppress the rebellious ones. This continuous infighting often attracted foreign invaders to the valley. In fact, the annexation of Kashmir by the Mughals which put an end to the Independent Sovereign State was a result of internecine warfare. The first major incursion was by Mirza Haider Dughlat through Zoji La pass. In July 1532 he came from Kashgar with Abu Said and his son Sikandar at the head of a large army. They easily subdued Ladakh and Baltistan. After hearing about the internecine warfare in Kashmir, he made a rapid advance towards the valley at the head of a force of 5,000 cavalry and infantry. Kashmiris were taken by surprise and in a course of few days, Dughlat’s troops entered Srinagar in January, 1533. The city was looted and plundered. However, Kashmiris organised their resistance under Kazi Chak and Abdul Magrey who had got united against a common foe. Dughlat’s forces were hemmed in a narrow valley and he sued for peace. His forces were allowed to depart by the same way they had come, in May, 1533. However, taking full advantage of the internal fighting, Mirza Haider Dughlat was back in Kashmir in October 1540, through the Tosa Maidan Pass. He had been aided by Magrey clan who had sought aid from Humayun against persecutions by Kazi Chak. The main weakness from which Chaks suffered and which resulted in their downfall as well as which made Kashmir lose its sovereignty was their obsession to impose Shia doctrines over the people. Mirza placed Nazuk Shah on the throne and carried on the administration in his name for 11 years. In the initial stages due to political expediency, he had been very liberal towards Shias but subsequently let loose an era of persecution and tyranny against them. To survive the turbulent Kashmiris, he made full use of the Shia-Sunni conflict which was at its peak during the rule of Chaks. However, this policy cost him both his position as well as his life! The self-respect of Kashmiris had been greatly wounded by the overbearing attitude of the various Mughal officers of the Mirza. They again forgot for the time being their internal religious-cum-political differences and organised a strong uprising under Hussain Magrey. The rebels established their headquarter at Khanpur near Rajauri. Mirza sent a strong army under the command of his cousin Qara Bahadur to sub-due the rebellion but the force was defeated. Ladakhi’s killed Dughlat’s Governor and made the garrison to flee to the valley. Similarly, the people of Pakhli drove out their Governor who was killed by Kashmiris along with his troops on entering the valley. There was a general uprising all over the Kingdom which unnerved Mirza. He rode to Khanpur at the head of a strong army to punish the insurgents but was killed during the night assault on the fort. This led to a widespread uprising throughout the valley and Mughal garrisons were overpowered and annihilated. Kashmir again reverted to an Independent position. Ghazi Chak became the first Chak ruler in 1561. He was known as a ruthless dispenser of justice and got his own son sentenced to death and executed for mortally attacking his uncle. However, the policy of persecuting Sunnis was continued by Chaks and ultimately resulted in Kashmir losing its independence. Yaqub Shah had let loose a ruthless policy of terror against the Sunnis. A saintly and pious person Qazi Musa was done to death on his refusal to mention the name of Hazrat Ali in all public prayers. Sunnis rose in revolt under the leadership of an eminent theologian Sheikh Yaqub Sarfi who was sent by Makhdoom Sahib with a group of advisors to invite Akbar to put an end to the chronic internecine warfare thereby closing the chapter of Kashmir’s long independent status.

Towards the end of Mughal rule there was chaos and disorder in Kashmir. Abdul Mansur Safdar Jung, the Subhedar of Kashmir could hardly maintain any authority in the province. His deputy Afrasiyab Khan was hard put to keep the turbulent nobles under check. He opened secret negotiations with Ahmad Shah Abdali and promised him all aid against the nominal Mughal ruler. In 1748 Ahmad Shah Abdali sent a strong Afghan force under Asmat Ullah Khan to occupy Kashmir. Even though the force was able to penetrate right up to Srinagar, it could not withstand the onslaught of the forces which Afrasiyab Khan had mustered. Asmat Ullah Khan was killed and his troops were scattered and annihilated. In the meantime the situation in Kashmir had further deteriorated. There were incessant feuds among the followers of the nobles and Mughal governors. Alaquli Khan was sent as the Governor to bring order to the prevalent chaos. He appointed Mir Muqim Kanth, a Kashmiri as his deputy. He found the treasury empty and in order to effect some economy, Mir Muqim disbanded a large number of troops which created disaffection in the army. Abul Qasim Khan taking advantage of the disaffection won over the forces and drove away Mir Muqim Kanth and declared himself as an independent ruler of Kashmir. He indulged in insensate cruelty and there was widespread distress in the land. As soon as Ahmad Shah Abdali was back in Lahore after a victorious campaign, Mir Muqim Kanth and Khwaja Zahir Didamari, the two influential leaders of Kashmir, distressed at the depredations of Abul Qasim, approached Abdali and induced him to invade Kashmir to bring it under his rule. Abdali gladly accepted the invitation and in 1753 sent a strong force of Afghans under Abdullah Khan Ishk Aqasi. Abul Qasim was defeated after a battle of fifteen days and was arrested and taken to Kabul. Ishk Aqasi entered Srinagar in triumph and planted the Afghan flag on the ramparts of Akbar’s fort at Nagar Nagar, and thus the rule of Mughal emperors in Kashmir was brought to an end.

The Afghan rule in Kashmir which continued for 67 years was probably the worst ever seen by the inhabitants of the valley. While inviting the Afghans to take over the administration of the valley, the Kashmiris had mistaken them for a branch of the civilised and humane Mughal emperors of India. They had hoped that after the break-up of the Central Mughal Power, Ahmad Shah Abdali and his successors would give them a stable administration. They could never imagine that all the beauty and nobility for which Kashmir and its people were known throughout the world would be ruthlessly wiped off under their rule. A Kashmiri poet has lamented this as: I enquired of the gardener the cause of the destruction of the garden. Drawing a deep sigh he replied, “It is the Afghans who did it”! Kashmiris got a rude shock when they witnessed the first acts of barbarity at the hands of their new masters. Abdullah Khan Ishk Aqasi let loose a reign of terror as soon as he entered the valley. His soldiers who were accustomed to looting and murdering the subjected people, amassed riches by the foulest means possible. The exactions of the Afghan rulers make people shudder even now! There are many stories about Afghan rule still popular among the people of the valley. It is said that a delegation of Kashmiris went to Kabul to request the King for a merciful governor. He asked them to choose any of his wazirs sitting in his court. They pointed towards an elderly pious man with white flowing beard and a tasbeeh in hand. The King readily agreed and sent Kakkar Khan with them. They brought him in a procession to Kashmir. As they reached Baramulla a funeral was passing by. The governor asked them to stop. Kashmiris were happy thinking the pious man is going to offer fateh to the departed soul. On the contrary he asked them to open the coffin and bit the ear of the deceased and shouted, “Tell the dead in the next world that Kakkar Khan has arrived in Kashmir!” The other story is about Jabbar Khan the last governor. Someone had told him that the Pandits believe that snow falls invariably on Shivaratri night (13th of the dark night of Phalguna, February-March). To test this he ordered that the festival be observed in the next month, Asarh, June-July. It so happened that due to extra-ordinary cooling of the atmosphere by a very heavy rain, snow flakes fell on this night also. The Kashmiri bards then sang, “Wuchton yih Jabbar, jandah, Haras tih karun wandah. (“Look at Jabbar, the wretch, even Har he turned into winter!”) Towards the end of Afghan rule, the Sikh power was rising in Punjab. Due to the exactions of Afghans, Kashmiris turned their wistful eyes towards Sikhs and mothers used a lullaby, “Deva yiyih Sikha raj tarit kyah”, (“would that the rule of the Sikhs would cross over to us”), to put their children to sleep. Kashmiris as usual made attempts to invite Sikhs to get rid of Afghans. Pandit Birbal Dhar an important Hindu noble and official escaped along with his son Raja Kak Dhar to Ranjit Singh’s court to induce him to invade Kashmir. His wife and daughter in law were left behind. The wife committed suicide but the daughter in law was arrested and taken to Kabul. Birbal Dhar was able to persuade Maharaja Ranjit Singh to send an army of 30,000 troops to Kashmir. Jabbar Khan was defeated and hastily fled to Kabul. Thus Kashmir fell into the hands of Sikhs. On hearing the news, Maharaja Ranjit Singh bestowed robes of honour and other favours on Raja Kak Dhar and other nobles. Lahore was illuminated for three days.
Again Kashmiris were in for a rude shock. The Sikh period proved worst of all. Muslims were subjected to the harshest possible treatment. The Jama Masjid at Srinagar was closed to public for prayers. Muslims were forbidden to say Azan. In fact one over zealous commander Phula Singh trained his guns on Shah Hammadan mosque to blow it up on the plea that it was built over a Hindu temple. It was due to the intervention of Birbal Dhar that the mosque was saved. However, the Sikh commander declared Pathar Masjid and several other mosques as the property of the State. Cow slaughter was declared a crime punishable by death and many people accused of killing cows were publicaly hanged. There was no rule of law. Even at present when Kashmiris refer to lawless and authoritarian behaviour, they call it “Sikhashahi”. Fortunately the Sikh rule lasted only 27 years! Kashmiris did not have much to do to get Dogras to rule over them. It was a gift of the British. For about a century Kashmiris remained under Dogras. It was only after many generations had seen untold trials and tribulations that the Kashmiris finally decided to raise a voice for their basic human rights. However, the “Freedom Movement” which started in earnest in 1931 got again enveloped in the chronic internecine warfare. After only six years there were two opposing view points. The nationalists or “Shers”, the followers of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, popularly called the Lion of Kashmir, who wanted an independent and secular Naya (New) Kashmir and the staunch Muslims or Bakras, the followers of Moulvi Yousaf Shah, who wanted to join Pakistan. As a repetition of history, each group sought assistance from outside Kashmir from the two neighbouring countries as a result of which they got divided into two halves. The emancipation or liberation for which they had been pinning for centuries again eluded them because of their own infighting. The same story continues on both sides of the divide. There are umpteen parties with umpteen agendas, each claiming to represent Kashmiris and each promising to get them a place of honour and dignity. All of them talk of an abstract goal of “Azadi” but are not able to define in explicit terms what “Azadi” would mean for an ordinary Kashmiri and how he will get it? There seem to be dozens of leaders but no followers! If only they all would delve into the past and study the history of Kashmir through the ages of trials and tribulations, they would have a definite and a well defined goal with a clear and specific blue-print to achieve it. The history is replete with instances how in the time of crisis Kashmiris did sink all their differences irrespective of caste, creed, and religion and joined hands to resist the invaders. They did succeed in chasing out the most powerful invaders but ultimately lost because of the might and strength of the outsiders who were able to exploit the chronic internecine warfare to the fullest extent. It is said that those who do not learn from the history are condemned to repeat it. After more than four centuries of exactions which had become a part of their lives, Kashmiris instead of getting released and liberated have got themselves fully entangled in a spiders web from which there seems to be no escape. There is still time and there is still a chance for them to reach the place of “honour and dignity” which has eluded them so long, if only they could sink all their differences created by the chronic internecine warfare and let the ultimate goal rather than personalities lead them to it. If they don’t, they will cease to be a nation and will be consigned to the pages of history!